What is Buddhism?

Buddha on Mandalay Hill, Burma (allmyanmar.com)

Buddhism initially developed in India as a reaction against Brahmanism in the 5th century BCE. For simplicity some might call that tradition "Hinduism." But there was never any such thing as "Hinduism" until the British invented and defined it centuries later. Instead there were many disparate traditions that got lumped together.

Buddhism drew many of its beliefs from that diverse Eastern philosophical context. Two key concepts that Buddhism uses are samsara and karma. Like other Eastern traditions, Buddhism holds that life unfolds as a series of rebirths and "redeaths" in a continuous cycle (samsara, literally, "the continued wandering on"). A person's actions during a life produce karma that determines the place and form of the next life (and succeeding lives). This samsara is often symbolized by the Wheel of Life.

Samsara: Realms of Rebirth
In all Buddhist traditions, these realm are divided into three main levels: celestial, terrestrial, and infernal. The human world is the lowest of the those world considered "fortunate" rebirths. The heavens and hells have many levels.

These 31 realms of rebirth are inhabited by creatures, sometimes divided for simplicity into six different "states of existence." These are

• divinities (brahmas) and deities (devas)
• humans
• titans or ogres (asuras)
• animals
• hungry ghosts (pretas)
• demons (yakkhas)

Beings in the first three states are there as the result of their store of good karma coming to fruition. Beings in the other three states are there as the result of their store of bad karma coming to fruition. All beings have both fortunate and unfortunate karma. Celestials exist in the higher heavens, titans in the lower heavens, and ordinary humans in between. Humans co-exist with animals and hungry ghosts (so called because they are wretched and face many privations), somewhat closer to infernal worlds. Demons reside still further down but still mix with the human world.

Samsara (operating by karma) ceaselessly rotates individuals through the different states of existence according to their actions.

The Human Problem and Solution
The Buddha pointed out the human problem and its solution together. Four connected statements -- the Four Noble Truths -- form the foundation of Buddhism, differentiating it from other religions.

The first two Noble Truths describe the problem:

• First Noble Truth: All conditioned existence is unsatisfactory (dukkha).
• Second Noble Truth: Dissatisfaction arises based on desire.

Note that there are two kinds of existence, conditioned and unconditioned, otherwise known as samsara and nirvana. It is important to understand these two statements together. What we wish for but do not get is dukkha. What we do not want but get anyway is dukkha. Pain, misery, suffering, grief...birth, old age, sickness, and death, all of these are forms of dukkha -- an all encompassing word for unpleasant feelings.

Like a doctor the Buddha only points out this distressing condition because there is a cure for it. No patient is interested until the illness is apparent. The Buddha goes on to point out the reason for the illness. We are suffering, and there's a reason for our suffering.

Once the problem is understood, the solution becomes apparent.

• Third Noble Truth: Then end of craving means the end of all dukkha.
• Fourth Noble Truth: Craving can be cured by following the Noble Eightfold Path.

The third truth is a logical deduction from the first two. Given the link between dukkha and craving, the way to cure the distressful situation is to uproot the cause. How to accomplish this?

The Buddha saw the liberating truth directly when he became enlightened: He thoroughly understood the Four Noble Truths, including the fourth truth -- that of the Path to nirvana.

The Noble Eightfold Path to Freedom

The ultimate goal of the Path is nirvana, a word that means the complete end of all dukkha. The Path's eight factors can be put into three groups. The factors co-arise, that is, they are developed together not one by one.

A person possesses "right view" -- by hearing the Dharma (the enlightened teachings) and reflecting on it. This gives rise to "right intention" or ennobling thoughts: thoughts of non-harming, renunciation, and non-cruelty.

Nirvana: the Goal of the Path
Nirvana is liberation from samsara and dukkha (unsatisfactoriness and suffering). In some ways, the Buddhist goal of nirvana is similar to the Brahminical/"Hindu" goal of moksha (temporary "release" by rebirth into a high heavenly world, the World of Brahma).

The cycle of rebirth-and-redeath comes to a complete and final end with the attainment of nirvana. Moksha is temporary in the sense that rebirth into heavenly worlds is still birth. It is still within samsara. One eventually falls from that world when the karma that led to rebirth there is exhausted.

How does one attain liberation? It is through self-development and mental cultivation. This is sometimes called meditation. But it is much more than quieting and purifying the mind. Insight into the Four Noble Truths is usually accomplished by removing oneself from the regular distractions of life.

However, there is one undeniable difference between Buddhism and every philosophy/religion that has ever existed. This is the doctrine of anatta (no-self). Hinduism, for example, describes moksha as the realization of the unity of the individual (atta) and the universal essence (Brahman). Other religions try to get at the same idea. Buddhism, however, probes reality to the end. With the stilling of craving there arises a vision of nirvana (spoken of as a literal "light," a dawning of knowledge and understanding). As craving and other defilements (hatred, delusion, and subtle "fetters" binding one to samsara) are extinguished, nirvana arises.

Theravada (the teaching of the historical Buddha's ancient enlightened disciples) is the earliest form of Buddhism. It holds nirvana up as the ultimate goal, as the reason for the Buddha's teachings.

The Buddha taught the way to celestial rebirths and also made known how to be reborn in the human world, how to be rich, beautiful, influential, smart, happy, and so on. But the highest teaching is to be free of all ignorance and dukkha. A person who reaches liberation is called an arhat. The highest aim of Theravada Buddhism is liberation.

The human world is said to be the most conducive to liberation. One explanation for this is that those born in more fortunate worlds enjoy such bliss that they cannot see dukkha. Thus, they do not see the danger, the hook hiding beneath the bait. They therefore do not strive to remove themselves from the distractions of life to quiet and purify their minds. They are steeped in craving, and a mind/heart ensnared by craving does not perceive the Four Noble Truths.

So being die and are reborn in ignorance, and with ignorance come craving and aversion. These three principle defilements give rise to a great deal of suffering. There is no satisfaction in samsara, so being perpetually continue "wandering on" chasing pleasure and running from pain.

Impersonality and Impermanence
The foundational idea of dukkha in Buddhism has two components that need to be discussed. All states of conditioned existence have three characteristic marks or seals. That is, they are unsatisfactory, impermanent, and impersonal.

Anatta literally means "no self." It refers to the Buddhist belief that an individual, a "self," is the interplay of five impermanent, impersonal, and unsatisfactory "heaps." They are called the Five Aggregates (skandhas). These groups of physical and psychological factors come together at birth, dissolve and rebuild each living moment, and fall apart at death. They are not reborn again. In fact, they do not pass on from moment to moment.

The Five Aggregates are

• form (a dense or subtle light body)
• sensations
• perceptions
• formations (e.g., intentions) and
• consciousness

This understanding of a "living-being" is that everything that is reborn is transient. It is in flux even as it undergoes rebirth. This actually happens moment to moment in a discrete causal chain. Therefore, Buddhism speaks of rebirth as a process, not of a "thing" that is reborn again and again. Reincarnation is an Eastern philosophical idea. Anatta is a unique teaching, and it is associated with rebirth. Rebirth has a root cause, namely, craving-ignorance-aversion. These three, which are always in combination, lead to karma.

Confusion arises when people attempt to simplify or philosophize rather than practicing the Path and directly seeing these Noble Truths. The Buddha's goal in making this known was not to satisfy speculators, but to encourage individuals to grow in compassion and wisdom toward the attainment of complete liberation from dukkha. Not everyone chooses this goal of nirvana; many are satisfied to cultivate karma towards rebirth in celestial worlds. And that's a legitimate choice. When one chooses, the teaching one hears will differ. The great distinction is between conventional and ultimate reality, between a transient self that strives for happiness and rebirth and a choice to make a final end of suffering.

Whatever one chooses, Buddhism is certain on one point: the Truth is directly observable if the mind/heart is calmed, purified, and turned towards insight. And therefore liberation is attainable -- in this very life. The Truth sets one free ignorance-craving-aversion and thereby one finds release from samsara.

There is a useful metaphor for those who have not directly seen and directly known these liberating Truths. If a flame moves from candle to candle -- is it the same flame passing or a different flame? Conventionally we say it is the same. But ultimately we may notice it is not even the same flame from moment to moment. New wick, wax, and oxygen are being consumed. The root processes of combustion (with its heat and light) itself is impersonal. It belongs to no one. So long as new fuel is consumed, the process goes on. So long as karma has not exhausted itself, rebirth takes place.

New karma is made, and the process continues: the Wheel of Life and Death (the continued wandering on of samsara) rolls on. The Five Aggregates roll on. And with a new birth come aging, sickness, death, grief, lamentation, unsatisfactoriness, and suffering. These accompany the process in spite of where one is born, in spite of the length of life, in spite of taking heavenly form. There is always impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and impersonality. To be sure there is happiness, joy, attachment, pleasure, and so on -- this is why beings are in no hurry to make an end of suffering.

The Solution: Enlightenment
Elated or miserable, this unsatisfactory state of affairs is rooted in ignorance of the Four Noble Truths. Until one directly sees and knows the Truth, there is no breaking free of the process. Craving arises from ignorance -- particularly ignorance of the impermanent, unsatisfactory, and ultimately impersonal nature of the process.

The answer to ignorance is wisdom. And liberating-wisdom finds completion at enlightenment (bodhi). The word means "awakening." Buddha is a title that simply means the "awakened one." He is fully enlightened because he teaches the way to enlightenment, unlike arhats who although they attain liberation may not be able to teach or explain the Path to others.

Enlightenment, waking up, realizing the true nature of existence opens to a vision of nirvana. That state is fully attained with the passing of all residual aggregates. It is the end of every form of suffering.

Theravada Cosmic Views
What is described here in brief are the earliest Buddhist teachings. Theravada Buddhism has remained faithful to these teachings and has attempted to keep them undiluted. They are personally verifiable. Therefore no perfecting of them is necessary since the assumptions and false conclusion would necessarily veer from the truth seen and taught by the historical Buddha.

That has not kept individuals and entire schools from veering however. Mahayana Buddhism has made changes, adding and changing doctrines, simplifying and condensing information (e.g., reducing 31 Planes of Existence to Six Realms), expanding and speculating on matters not crucial to the goal of enlightenment, in all building up a "better" philosophy. Mahayana describes the same problem while concluding that there is a different solution than the one proposed by the historical Shakyamuni Buddha (the former prince Siddhartha Gautama).

Buddhism continues to be a vibrant tradition, the subject of many lectures (such as this one at UCLA)

• Text corrects common errors from the University of Wyoming: uwacadweb.uwyo.edu